Questions ¤§¸Ñµª¡@¡@Chapter 8

1.

In microeconomics, the demand curve shows the various quantities of a specific product that a consumer wants at various prices for that product, holding preferences, income, and other prices constant. The quantity demanded changes because of a change in relative prices. In macroeconomics, the AD curve shows the various quantities of GDP demanded at various price levels in the economy. Here, there is no change in relative prices of other products (although if the nominal wage is unchanged, there is a change in the real wage, which is a relative price). In macroeconomics, the increase in output demanded arises because the changing price level causes the real money supply (and interest rates) to change.

(a) The AD curve is steeper when the interest responsiveness of the demand for money becomes larger. When the interest responsiveness of the demand for money becomes larger, the demand for money curve will have a flatter slope relative to the M/P axis. A given increase in the real money supply will therefore produce less of a reduction in the interest rate, less of an expansion in autonomous planned spending, and less of an expansion in real GDP. Consequently, a given reduction in the price level, which increases the real money supply, will have a smaller effect on real GDP when the interest responsiveness of the demand for money is larger.

(b) The AD curve is flatter when the income responsiveness of the demand for money is larger because the LM curve is steeper. A steep LM curve amplifies the effect on output of a higher real money supply, all other things held equal.

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(j)

The assumption of a fixed nominal wage means that labor costs remain fixed as firms increase output. Therefore profits increase as firms expand output when the prices of goods and services sold by businesses rise, which is why the aggregate supply curve is upward sloping.

A higher price level results in higher profits for firms if they expand the amount of goods and services, given that input costs are fixed. That is why real GDP increases as the price level rises.

Nominal wages adjust slowly for three reasons. First, formal or informal contract fix wages for a period of time, just as union contracts or the contracts professional athletes sign for one or more seasons. Second, in the absence of formal labor contracts, it takes time for workers and managers to evaluate how productive workers are in order to determine what the workers should be paid, so that in the period between performance evaluations, the nominal wages of workers are fixed. Finally businesses are reluctant to reduce nominal wages out of the fear of losing their best employees.

Lower prices for raw materials reduce costs and increase profits at each price level, resulting in an increase in output. Since output increases at each price level, the SAS curve shifts to the right.

The increase in aggregate demand would cause the price level, output, and the interest rate to rise. The interest rate rises not only because the increased spending shifts the IS curve right but the higher price level shifts the LM curve left. That increase in the interest rate crowds out autonomous consumption spending and autonomous investment. With flexible exchange rates, an increase in the interest rate will cause the exchange rate to increase and there will also be a crowding out effect on net exports and in addition imports rise as income rises. The increase in government spending is likely to increase the budget deficit, although not as much as the rise in spending since the higher level of income generates more tax revenue.

a.  Real output decreases and interest rate increases via the IS-LM analysis. Thus, AD curve shifts to the left along the SAS curve. So the price level also declines. Thus, both output and the price level decline in the short run. The lower price level also reduces firms¡¦ profits and causes them to try to reduce costs. Since a lower price level has increased the real wages of workers, they are likely to agree to reductions in nominal wages. Lower nominal wages shift the ­SAS curve right, which leads to an additional drop in the price level. That lower price level increases the real money supply, shifting the LM curve to the right. The shift to the right of the LM curve is represented as a movement down the new AD curve. The nominal wage and the price level continue to decline and output continues to rise until the output returns to its original level and the IS and LM curves intersect at the original level of output. In the long run, output and employment and real wage do not change. However, the price level and the nominal wage both decline.

b.  Output and the interest rate both increase when net exports rise as a result of the depreciation in the dollar. The increase in output and the rise in the interest rate are shown graphically as a shift right of the IS curve and a movement up the LM curve. The AD curve shifts right by the amount that income increases at the intersection of the new IS curve and the LM curve. The price level rises since aggregate demand exceeds aggregate supply at the initial price level. The rise in the price level is shown graphically as movements up the SAS curve and the new aggregate demand curve. The rise in the price level reduces the real money supply, which is shown as a shift left of the LM curve and corresponds to the movement up the new aggregate demand curve. Therefore output, the interest rate, and the price level all increase in the short run, while the real wage rate falls due to the rise in the price level.

No. The economy is in short-run equilibrium when the AD and SAS curves intersect, but not necessarily in long-run equilibrium. It will be a sustainable long-run equilibrium only the price level and the nominal wage are such that the real wage rate equals the equilibrium real wage and Y = YN. At any other combination of W, P, and Y, the SAS curve will shift as the nominal wages adjust.

The movement down the AD curve would result from falling prices in response to the economy¡¦s being below YN. The parameter for the SAS curve is the nominal wage rate. If the SAS curve did not shift (nominal wages did not fall), the falling price levels would yield real wages above the equilibrium real wage. Thus, nominal wages must fall along with prices if the economy is going to ¡§self-correct.¡¨ During the Great Depression, nominal wages did not behave as the classical economists predicted: nominal wages did not decline continuously during the 1930s when Y was below YN; in fact, in 1937 the nominal wage rate was back to the 1929 level, despite an unemployment rate of 14.3 percent.

Monetary impotence refers to the situation when an increase in the real money supply does not stimulate additional spending and output. The two conditions that would lead to monetary impotence are a vertical IS curve or horizontal LM curve. Because of falling consumer and business confidence, the IS curve during the depression was very steep. This suggests that changes in the interest rate would have had very little effect on desired spending.

A zero lower bound on the interest rate prevents a falling price level, which increase the real money supply, from reducing the nominal interest rates below zero. In fact, once the zero lower bond is reached lower bound falling prices raise the real interest rate since the inflation rate is negative and the nominal interest rate cannot fall further.

Unlike the United States, Britain allowed its foreign exchange to fall, resulting in a rise in net exports and a relatively smaller decrease in aggregate demand. That relatively smaller decrease in aggregate demand resulted in a less severe downturn in output in the United Kingdom than in the United States. The German government¡¦s spending on armaments, highways, and housing resulted in a more expansionary fiscal policy than the one pursued by the U.S. government and a relatively smaller decrease in aggregate demand in Germany than in the United States. In addition, the German government allowed prices and wages to fall, unlike the U.S. government which took actions to raise wages and prices. Thus, the actions of the German government allowed its economy¡¦s SAS curve to shift right, whereas the actions of the U.S. government caused the American economy¡¦s SAS curve to shift left. Therefore, governmental policies toward wages and prices moderated the severity of the Great Depression in Germany, whereas they exacerbated it in the United States.

The interest rate does not play any role in the Pigou Effect.

A fall in prices, with a constant nominal money supply, leads to an increase in the real money supply. With the Pigou Effect, this increase in the money supply will directly affect the demand for commodities; thus, the AD curve cannot be vertical.

In a period of continuing inflation, the value of real balances would decline if the growth rate of the nominal money supply was less than the inflation rate. This change in wealth might cause a decline in autonomous expenditures, thus helping to slow the growth rate of output. Here, the expectations effect might work against policymakers if people, expecting further inflation, decide to ¡§buy today¡¨ and beat the price increases. This activity would stimulate spending. Similarly, the redistribution effect could work against policymakers if the winners from the inflation tended to spend at a greater rate than losers.

The initial impact of the increase in autonomous exports will be to shift both the IS and AD curves to the right. Both output and prices would increase. Given the existence of a real balance effect, however, the rising prices will cause the IS curve to shift backward to the left along the (assumed) constant LM curve. This implies a movement upward along the new AD curve. The economy will return automatically to the intersection with the LAS line. If the expectations and redistribution effects are present, then these will shift the AD curve to the right, exacerbating the rise in prices accompanying the increase in autonomous exports.

If the nominal wage is rigid downward, the SAS curve will remain fixed. Even if the AD curve is downward sloping, the price level can fall along the AD curve only until the AD curve intersects the fixed SAS curve. As a result, a shift to the left by the AD curve will result in an output level below YN and real wages above the equilibrium level.

The decline in the output ratio in the United States during the Great Depression was much larger, from more than 100 percent in mid-1929 to 61 percent by late 1932, than it was during the Global Economic Crisis, when the output ratio declined by ¡§only¡¨ 8 percentage points from late 2007 to mid-2009.